| Anglo-Spanish War | |||||||||
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| Part of the American Revolutionary War | |||||||||
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| Belligerents | |||||||||
| Spain | Great Britain | ||||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
| Bernardo de Gálvez, Matías de Gálvez, Luis de Córdova y Córdova, Juan de Lángara |
George Brydges Rodney, Richard Howe, George Augustus Eliott, John Campbell, James Murray |
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Spain actively supported the Thirteen Colonies throughout the American Revolutionary War, beginning in 1776 by jointly funding Roderigue Hortalez and Company, a trading company that provided critical military supplies, through financing the final Siege of Yorktown in 1781 with a collection of gold and silver in Havana, Cuba.[1] Spain was allied with France through the Bourbon Family Compact, and also viewed the Revolution as an opportunity to weaken the British Empire, which had caused Spain substantial losses during the Seven Years' War. As the newly appointed Prime Minister, José Moñino y Redondo, Count of Floridablanca, wrote in March 1777, "the fate of the colonies interests us very much, and we shall do for them everything that circumstances permit".[2]
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Spanish aid was supplied to the colonies through four main routes: from French ports with the funding of Roderigue Hortalez and Company, through the port of New Orleans and up the Mississippi River, from the warehouses in Havana, and from Bilbao, through the Gardoqui family trading company.
Smuggling from New Orleans began in 1776, when General Charles Lee sent two Continental Army (the army of the Thirteen Colonies) officers to request supplies from the New Orleans Governor, Luis de Unzaga. Unzaga, concerned about overtly antagonizing the British before the Spanish were prepared for war, agreed to assist the rebels covertly. Unzaga authorized the shipment of desperately needed gunpowder in a transaction brokered by Oliver Pollock, a Patriot (Revolutionary) and financier.[3] When Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid, Count of Gálvez was appointed Governor of New Orleans in January 1777, he continued and expanded the supply operations.[4]
As the Patriot Benjamin Franklin reported from Paris to the Congressional Committee of Secret Correspondence in March 1777, the Spanish court quietly granted the rebels direct admission to the rich, previously restricted port of Havana under most favored nation status. Franklin also noted in the same report that three thousand barrels of gunpowder were waiting in New Orleans, and that the merchants in Bilbao "had orders to ship for us such necessaries as we might want."[5]
The Spanish had sustained serious losses against the British in the Seven Years War, and these losses less than two decades earlier heavily influenced their timing to enter the war in the 1770s. During the Seven Years' War, Spain's two key trading ports, Havana (in Cuba) and Manila, Philippines were invaded and occupied by the British in 1762. In the peace settlement of 1763 Spain recovered Havana by ceding Florida, including St. Augustine, which the Spanish had founded in 1565. Spain recovered the Philippines later. The Spanish ministers were also concerned about geographic neighbor Portugal, an ally of the British, and Portugal's immensely wealthy treasure fleet that was due to sail from Havana.
The Spanish position was summarized by the former Spanish Prime Minister and then-Ambassador to the French Court, Jerónimo Grimaldi, 1st Duke of Grimaldi, in a letter to Arthur Lee, an American diplomat in Madrid who was trying to persuade the Spanish to declare an open alliance with the fledgling United States. Genoese by birth and a shrewdly calculating politico by nature, Grimaldi demurred, replying, "You have considered your own situation, and not ours. The moment is not yet come for us. The war with Portugal — France being unprepared, and our treasure ships from South America not being arrived — makes it improper for us to declare immediately."[6] Meanwhile, Grimaldi reassured Lee, stores of clothing and powder were deposited at New Orleans and Havana for the Americans, and further shipments of blankets were being collected at Bilbao.
By June 1779, the Spanish preparations for war were finalized. The British cause seemed to be at a particularly low ebb. The Spanish joined France in the war, implementing the Treaty of Aranjuez.
The main goals of Spain were, as in the Seven Years' War, the recovery of Gibraltar and Minorca from the British, who had owned them since 1704.
The Great Siege of Gibraltar was the first and longest Spanish action in the war, from June 24, 1779, to February 7, 1783. Despite the bigger size of the besieging Franco-Spanish army, at one point numbering 100,000, the British under George Augustus Elliott were able to hold out in the fortress and secured their supplies by sea after the Battle of Cape Saint Vincent in January 1780. Nor was the aged but energetic Luis de Córdova y Córdova, who captured almost sixty British ships during the Action of 9 August 1780, able to add a third British convoy to his conquests, as Howe's fleet successfully resupplied Gibraltar consequent to the Battle of Cape Spartel, in October 1782.[7]
The combined Franco-Spanish invasion of Minorca in 1781 met with more success; Minorca surrendered the following year,[8] and was restored to Spain after the war, nearly eighty years after it was first captured by the British.[9]
In the Caribbean, the main effort was directed to prevent possible British landings in Cuba, remembering the British expedition against Cuba that seized Havana in the Seven Years War. Other goals included the reconquest of Florida (which the British had divided into West Florida and East Florida in 1763), and the resolution of logging disputes involving the British in Belize.
On the mainland, the governor of Spanish Louisiana, Count Bernardo de Gálvez, led a series of successful offensives against the British forts in the Mississippi Valley, first capturing Fort Bute at Manchac and then forcing the surrender of Baton Rouge, Natchez and Mobile in 1779 and 1780.[10] While a hurricane halted an expedition to capture Pensacola, the capital of British West Florida, in 1780, Gálvez's forces achieved a decisive victory against the British in 1781 at the Battle of Pensacola giving the Spanish control of all of West Florida. This secured the southern route for supplies and closed off the possibility of any British offensive into the western frontier of United States via the Mississippi River.
When Spain entered the war, Britain also went on the offensive in the Caribbean, planning an expedition against Spanish Nicaragua. A British attempt to gain a foothold at San Fernando de Omoa was rebuffed in October 1779, and an expedition in 1780 against Fort San Juan in Nicaragua was at first successful, but yellow fever and other tropical diseases wiped out most of the force, which then withdrew back to Jamaica.
Following these successes the Spaniards again went on the offensive, successfully capturing the Bahamas in 1782 without battle. In 1783 Gálvez was preparing to invade Jamaica from Cuba, but these plans were aborted when Britain sued for peace.
The Spanish assisted the Thirteen Colonies in their campaigns in the American Midwest. In January 1778, Virginia Governor Patrick Henry authorized an expedition by George Rogers Clark, who captured the fort at Vincennes and secured the northern region of the Ohio for the rebels. Clark relied on Gálvez and Oliver Pollock for support to supply his men with weapons and ammunition, and to provide credit for provisions. The credit lines that Pollock established to purchase supplies for Clark were supposed to be backed by the state of Virginia. However, Pollock in turn had to rely on his own personal credit and Gálvez, who allowed the funds of the Spanish government to be at Pollock's disposal as loans. These funds were usually delivered in the dark cover of night by Gálvez's private secretary.[11]
The Spanish garrisons in the Louisiana region repelled attacks from British units and the latter's Indian allies in the Battle of Saint Louis in 1780. A year later, a detachment travelled through present-day Illinois and took Fort St. Joseph, in the modern state of Michigan.
The Spanish also assisted in the Siege of Yorktown in 1781, the critical and final battle of the War. French General Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau, commanding his country's forces in North America, sent a desperate appeal to François Joseph Paul de Grasse, the French admiral designated to assist the Colonists, asking him to raise money in the Caribbean to fund the campaign at Yorktown. With the assistance of Spanish agent Francisco Saavedra de Sangronis, the needed cash, over 500,000 in silver pesos, was raised in Havana, Cuba within 24 hours. This money was used to purchase critical supplies for the siege, and to fund payroll for the Continental Army.[12]
The reforms made by the Spanish colonial authorities in the Americas as a result of Spain's poor performance in the Seven Years War had proved successful. Spanish forces remained undefeated—in the American theatre at least—until the end of the war. As a result, Spain retained Minorca and West Florida in the Treaty of Paris, and traded the Bahamas for East Florida. The lands east of the Mississippi, however, were recognized as part of the newly independent United States of America.
Spain's involvement in the American Revolutionary War was widely regarded as a successful one. The Spanish took a gamble in entering the war, banking on Great Britain's vulnerability, caused by the effort of fighting their rebellious colonists in North America while also conducting a global war against a growing coalition of nations. This allowed Spain some easy conquests, particularly in the New World, as the British were increasingly stretched as they tried to wage war on so many different fronts.
The war gave a strong boost to national morale, which had been badly shaken following the major losses to the British during the previous war. Even though Spain's most coveted target, Gibraltar, remained out of its grasp, Spain had more than compensated by recovering Minorca and regaining its place as a major player in the Caribbean, all of which were seen as vital if Spain was to continue into the nineteenth century as a great power.
Spain was seen to have received tangible results out of the war, especially in contrast to its ally France. The French had invested huge amounts of manpower, finance and resources for little clear national gain. France had been left with crippling debts which it struggled to pay off, and which become one of the major causes of the French Revolution that broke out in 1789. Spain, in comparison, disposed of its debts more easily, partly due to the stunning increases in silver production from the mines in Mexico and Bolivia. In the mid-18th century, production in Mexico increased by about 600%, and by 250% in Peru and Bolivia.[13]
One particular outcome of the war was the manner in which it enhanced the position of Prime Minister Floridablanca, and his government continued to dominate Spanish politics until 1792.
Don Diego de Gardoqui, of the Gardoqui trading company that had greatly assisted the rebels during the war, was appointed as Spain's first ambassador to the United States of America in 1784. Gardoqui became well acquainted with George Washington, and marched in the newly elected President Washington's inaugural parade. King Charles III of Spain continued communications with Washington, sending him livestock from Spain that Washington had requested for his farm at Mount Vernon.[14]